Resources and Further Reading

This page provides a comprehensive bibliography of sources used throughout this website, organized by category. These resources are essential for anyone conducting research on Pennhurst State School, institutional history, or the disability rights movement.

Primary Sources and Archives

Pennsylvania State Archives

  • Pennhurst State School and Hospital Records, 1903-1987. Record Group 23. Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission. Contains official institutional records, correspondence, and documentation.
  • Department of Public Welfare Annual Reports. Various years, 1908-1987. Statistical data and administrative information.
  • Historical Photographs Collection. Images of Pennhurst buildings and campus, earliest photographs from 1922.

Temple University Urban Archives

  • Bill Baldini Collection. Contains footage, scripts, and materials from "Suffer the Little Children" (1968) and subsequent reports on Pennhurst.

Online Archives

  • Internet Archive. "Suffer the Little Children" (1968) documentary available for viewing at https://archive.org/details/suffer-the-little-children-pennsylvania
  • Wikimedia Commons. Historical photographs of Pennhurst buildings and campus under public domain or Creative Commons licenses.
  • Halderman v. Pennhurst State School and Hospital, 446 F. Supp. 1295 (E.D. Pa. 1978). Judge Raymond J. Broderick's landmark ruling finding constitutional violations. Filed May 30, 1974; decision March 17, 1978.
  • Pennhurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman, 451 U.S. 1 (1981). First Supreme Court appeal addressing federal statutory claims.
  • Pennhurst State School & Hospital v. Halderman, 465 U.S. 89 (1984). Second Supreme Court decision establishing the "Pennhurst Doctrine" on state sovereign immunity under the Eleventh Amendment.
  • Pennsylvania Act No. 424 of 1903. Original legislation authorizing establishment of Pennhurst.
  • Institutional Peonage Abolishment Act of 1973. Pennsylvania legislation ending forced unpaid labor by institutionalized individuals.

Books and Monographs

Pennhurst-Specific Works

  • Johnson, Roland and Karl Williams. Lost in a Desert World: An Autobiography. Speaking For Ourselves, 1994 (republished 2002). First-person account by Pennhurst survivor who became prominent disability rights advocate.
  • Downey, Dennis B. and James W. Conroy. Pennhurst and the Struggle for Disability Rights. Pennsylvania State University Press, 2020. Comprehensive scholarly analysis of Pennhurst's role in disability rights history.
  • Conroy, James W. and Valerie J. Bradley. The Pennhurst Longitudinal Study: Combined Report of Five Years of Research and Analysis. Temple University Institute on Disabilities, 1985. Empirical research on outcomes for former residents after community placement.

Institutional History and Disability Rights

  • Blatt, Burton and Fred Kaplan. Christmas in Purgatory: A Photographic Essay on Mental Retardation. Allyn and Bacon, 1966. Groundbreaking photographic documentation of institutional conditions.
  • Fleischer, Doris Zames and Frieda Zames. The Disability Rights Movement: From Charity to Confrontation. Temple University Press, 2001 (updated 2011). Encyclopedic history of disability rights activism in America.
  • D'Antonio, Michael. The State Boys Rebellion. Simon & Schuster, 2004. Chronicles conditions at Fernald School, a similar Massachusetts institution.
  • Shapiro, Joseph P. No Pity: People with Disabilities Forging a New Civil Rights Movement. Times Books, 1993. Comprehensive overview of disability rights movement.
  • Erkulwater, Jennifer L. Disability Rights and the American Social Safety Net. Cornell University Press, 2006. Places Pennhurst in broader policy context.

Scholarly Articles and Reports

  • "The Pennhurst Doctrines and the Lost Disability History of the 'New Federalism.'" California Law Review, May 5, 2023. Legal analysis of Pennhurst case's impact on federalism and constitutional law.
  • Smith, J. David and Michael L. Wehmeyer. "Remembering 'Suffer the Little Children' and Pennhurst's Enduring Legacy." The Philadelphia Inquirer, June 22, 2018. Historical analysis of Baldini's exposé and its impact.
  • Pennsylvania Commission to Investigate Provision for the Weak-Minded and Epileptic. Report to the Legislature. Harrisburg, PA, 1913. Historical document reflecting eugenics-era thinking.

Documentary Films and Media

  • "Suffer the Little Children" (1968). Bill Baldini, WCAU-TV (Channel 10) Philadelphia. Five-part television exposé that brought Pennhurst's conditions to national attention. Broadcast July 1-5, 1968. Available online via Internet Archive.
  • "The Pennhurst Longitudinal Study: A Report on Five Years" (1981). Academic documentary of resident outcomes after deinstitutionalization.

Advocacy Organizations and Websites

Pennhurst-Specific Organizations

  • Pennhurst Memorial and Preservation Alliance - https://www.preservepennhurst.org/
    Works to preserve history and advocate for proper memorial to those who suffered at Pennhurst.

Disability Rights Organizations

  • Disability Rights Education & Defense Fund (DREDF) - https://dredf.org/
    Maintains legal documents and analysis of disability rights cases including Pennhurst.
  • The Arc (formerly PARC/NARC) - https://thearc.org/
    Parent advocacy organization that joined Pennhurst lawsuit; Pennsylvania chapter was plaintiff.
  • Temple University Institute on Disabilities - https://disabilities.temple.edu/
    Research center maintaining disability rights timeline and resources.
  • Self Advocates Becoming Empowered (SABE) - http://www.sabeusa.org/
    National self-advocacy organization co-founded by Pennhurst survivor Roland Johnson.
  • Speaking For Ourselves - Philadelphia-based self-advocacy organization founded by Pennhurst survivors.

Key Legislation

  • Rehabilitation Act of 1973, Section 504. First major federal civil rights protection for disabled Americans, prohibiting discrimination in federally funded programs.
  • Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 (now Individuals with Disabilities Education Act). Guaranteed free appropriate public education to children with disabilities.
  • Developmental Disabilities Assistance and Bill of Rights Act. Federal legislation promoting community-based services.
  • Fair Housing Amendments Act of 1988. Added disability protections to federal fair housing law.
  • Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990. Landmark legislation prohibiting discrimination based on disability in employment, public services, public accommodations, and telecommunications.

Disability Rights Timelines

  • Temple University Institute on Disabilities - Disability Rights Timeline. https://disabilities.temple.edu/resources/disability-rights-timeline
    Comprehensive timeline including Pennhurst events.
  • Wikipedia - Timeline of disability rights in the United States. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_disability_rights_in_the_United_States
    Detailed chronological reference.

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About This Project

This website was created as a capstone project on the History of Pennhurst State School and similar institutions and how they helped shape disability rights in America. The project represents months of research into primary sources, historical documents, survivor testimonies, and scholarly works on institutional care and the disability rights movement.

Purpose and Goals

The primary goals of this educational resource are to:

  • Document the history of Pennhurst State School from its founding in 1908 through its closure in 1987
  • Preserve the voices and experiences of survivors, families, and staff
  • Explain how Pennhurst catalyzed the disability rights movement
  • Connect institutional history to modern disability rights law and policy
  • Ensure these events are never forgotten and such institutions never exist again
  • Demonstrate web accessibility standards in practice

Research Methodology

This project synthesizes information from multiple categories of sources:

  • Primary Sources: Pennsylvania State Archives, court documents, legislative records, contemporary journalism
  • Survivor Testimonies: Published autobiographies, documented interviews, oral histories
  • Documentary Evidence: Bill Baldini's "Suffer the Little Children" and other video documentation
  • Scholarly Works: Peer-reviewed articles, books, and historical analyses
  • Legal Documents: Court decisions, briefs, and legal analyses

Every effort has been made to present information accurately and to properly cite all sources. Claims made throughout the site are supported by citations to verifiable sources.

Note on Language and Terminology

Historical documents and sources use terminology that is now considered outdated and offensive, including "feeble-minded," "imbecile," "insane," and "retarded." These terms are included only when directly quoting historical sources to maintain accuracy and historical context. Throughout original content, this website uses person-first language (e.g., "people with disabilities," "individuals with intellectual disabilities") in accordance with modern standards.

Educational Use

This website is designed as an educational resource for:

  • Students studying disability history, civil rights, social work, or related fields
  • Researchers investigating institutional care or deinstitutionalization
  • Advocates working on contemporary disability rights issues
  • Anyone interested in understanding this important chapter of American history

All content is presented for educational purposes. Users may reference, cite, or share this work with proper attribution.